1. Marbury v. Madison

The landmark case Marbury v. Madison established the foundation of judicial review. Chief Justice John Marshall delivered the opinion that the Supreme Court had the authority to declare a law unconstitutional. This case arose when William Marbury petitioned for a writ of mandamus to compel Secretary of State James Madison to deliver his commission as justice of the peace.

The ruling specified that while Marbury had a right to his commission, the Court could not enforce it because the statute granting the Supreme Court the power to issue writs of mandamus was itself unconstitutional. Thus, the Judiciary Act of 1789 was partially invalidated.

Marbury v. Madison solidified the role of the judiciary as an equal branch of government. It underscored the checks and balances system, allowing the courts to nullify laws that contradict the Constitution. This decision has had far-reaching implications, reinforcing the principle that no branch of government can exceed its constitutional limits.¹

2. Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer

In 1952, the United States Supreme Court addressed the issue of executive overreach in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer. This case revolved around President Harry Truman's decision to seize control of the nation's steel mills to avert a strike during the Korean War, asserting that his actions were necessary to prevent disruptions in steel production vital to national defense.

The Supreme Court, under Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, delivered a decisive opinion, ruling against President Truman's unilateral action. The Court held that the President did not have the authority to seize private property without explicit congressional authorization. In the absence of statutory or constitutional authority, such executive orders could not stand.

Justice Hugo Black, writing for the majority, emphasized that the President's power to issue orders must stem from either an act of Congress or the Constitution itself. Because neither granted Truman the authority to seize the steel mills, his actions were deemed an overreach. This decision reaffirmed the principle that the executive branch cannot wield unchecked power and underscored the importance of the separation of powers doctrine.²

Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer reinforced the system of checks and balances enshrined in the U.S. Constitution. By curbing executive overreach, the Supreme Court safeguarded both the legislative authority of Congress and the freedoms of private enterprise.

3. United States v. Nixon

The Watergate scandal tested the separation of powers in U.S. history, culminating in United States v. Nixon in 1974. This case addressed the boundaries of executive privilege when President Richard Nixon asserted it to withhold audio tapes related to the scandal.

The Special Prosecutor subpoenaed these tapes to gather evidence in the investigation, leading to a constitutional confrontation. When the case reached the Supreme Court, the Justices faced a critical question: Does the president have an absolute right to withhold information from a judicial proceeding under the claim of executive privilege?

Chief Justice Warren E. Burger delivered the unanimous decision, stating that while executive privilege is a matter of constitutional significance, it is not absolute. The Court held that the need for evidence in a criminal trial outweighs the president's general interest in confidentiality. Consequently, the Court ordered President Nixon to release the tapes, which ultimately led to his resignation amid impending impeachment.³

United States v. Nixon reaffirmed the judiciary's vital role as a check on executive power. It highlighted the importance of transparency and accountability in government, ensuring that executive privilege cannot be used as a shield against judicial scrutiny.

4. INS v. Chadha

In 1983, the Supreme Court delivered a groundbreaking decision in INS v. Chadha, a case that scrutinized the legislative veto and its compatibility with the separation of powers doctrine. This case arose when Jagdish Rai Chadha, an immigrant from Kenya, faced deportation after overstaying his visa. Although the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) had authorized his stay, the House of Representatives exercised a legislative veto, ordering Chadha's deportation.

Chadha challenged the constitutionality of this legislative veto, arguing that it violated the principle of separation of powers by allowing Congress to exercise executive actions without adhering to the requirements of bicameralism and presentment as stipulated in the Constitution.

The Court, in a 7-2 decision delivered by Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, struck down the legislative veto as unconstitutional. Burger's opinion emphasized that the Constitution clearly delineates the processes required for enacting legislation, processes which demand:

1. Passage by both houses of Congress (bicameralism)
2. Subsequent presentation to the President for approval or veto (presentment)

Congress's ability to unilaterally overturn an executive decision through a legislative veto bypassed these essential requirements.⁴

INS v. Chadha thus reaffirmed the integrity of the legislative process and regulated the extent of congressional oversight on executive decisions. By invalidating the legislative veto, the Supreme Court curtailed Congress's ability to unilaterally interfere with executive actions, ensuring that each branch of government remains confined within its constitutional bounds.

5. Clinton v. Jones

The 1997 Supreme Court case, Clinton v. Jones, served as a critical examination of presidential immunity, establishing that a sitting president is not immune from civil litigation for actions taken before assuming office. This landmark decision arose when Paula Corbin Jones filed a lawsuit against then-President Bill Clinton, alleging sexual harassment that occurred while he was the Governor of Arkansas.

President Clinton sought to have the lawsuit dismissed on the grounds of presidential immunity, arguing that allowing such a civil suit to proceed would interfere with the execution of his presidential duties. The case ultimately reached the Supreme Court, where the justices faced the pivotal question of whether a sitting president could be subject to civil litigation for actions taken prior to his presidency.

Chief Justice William Rehnquist, writing for the unanimous Court, delivered a decision that rejected the notion of absolute presidential immunity from civil suits for unofficial acts. The opinion emphasized that the separation of powers does not grant the president blanket protection from judicial processes in matters unrelated to official duties. The Court asserted that the judiciary must remain an independent check on presidential power—a principle deeply embedded in the Constitution.⁵

This ruling underscored the foundational belief that no individual, including the president, is above the law. By allowing the civil suit to proceed, the Court reaffirmed the judiciary's role in maintaining accountability and transparency within the highest office of the land.

Clinton v. Jones thus reinforced the separation of powers, highlighting the judiciary's ability to serve as a crucial check on the executive branch. By upholding the principle that even the president can be called to account for personal conduct, the Supreme Court further solidified the Constitution's role as the supreme law of the land.

6. Seila Law v. CFPB

The 2020 Supreme Court case Seila Law v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (CFPB) brought significant scrutiny to the constitutionality of independent agencies structured with excessive autonomy from the executive branch. The primary issue revolved around the fact that the CFPB was led by a single director who could only be removed by the president "for cause," rather than at the president's discretion. This setup, the plaintiffs argued, violated the separation of powers by unduly limiting the president's authority to oversee and manage executive branch personnel.

The Supreme Court, in a decision delivered by Chief Justice John Roberts, agreed with Seila Law LLC, ruling that the structure of the CFPB was unconstitutional. The majority opinion argued that the for-cause removal protection afforded to the CFPB director unlawfully restricted the president's ability to execute the laws, as it inhibited the president from having direct oversight and control over executive branch officials.

Chief Justice Roberts articulated that this level of independence was too significant, affirming the need for executive branch accountability. He observed that the Constitution empowers the president to ensure that the laws are faithfully executed, a function that necessitates the ability to remove executive officials who fail to adequately perform their duties.

The ruling in Seila Law v. CFPB didn't abolish the CFPB but mandated a structural change to comply with constitutional requirements. The decision stipulated that the CFPB director must be removable by the president at will, thereby reinstating the president's ability to directly oversee and manage the agency's leadership.

This decision reinforced the boundaries that define the separation of powers, stressing that while independent agencies may function autonomously, they must remain within the constitutional framework designed to prevent any one branch from wielding unchecked power. Seila Law v. CFPB serves as a reminder of the necessity for accountability within the executive branch and ensures that independent agencies do not become entities unto themselves, free from presidential oversight.

7. Morrison v. Olson

The 1988 Supreme Court case Morrison v. Olson explored the constitutionality of the Independent Counsel law established by the Ethics in Government Act of 1978. The case began when Congress appointed independent counsel Alexia Morrison to investigate whether Assistant Attorney General Theodore Olson had provided false testimony to a congressional committee. Olson challenged the appointment, asserting that the Independent Counsel Act unconstitutionally infringed upon the executive branch's authority.

In a 7-1 decision authored by Chief Justice William Rehnquist, the Court upheld the constitutionality of the Independent Counsel law. Rehnquist argued that the Independent Counsel was an "inferior officer" because they had limited jurisdiction, tenure, and duties, and therefore did not violate the Appointments Clause. The Court also determined that the law provided enough executive control to satisfy the requirements of the separation of powers doctrine, as the Independent Counsel operated under the authority of the Attorney General, who retained oversight and the ability to remove the counsel for cause.

Justice Antonin Scalia, in a dissent, asserted that the creation of the Independent Counsel undermined the unity and accountability of the executive branch, a core principle embedded in the Constitution by the Founding Fathers to safeguard liberty.

Morrison v. Olson fortified the principle that independent checks on governmental power are permissible, even within the executive branch, provided they do not excessively undermine presidential authority. The decision underscores the judiciary's role in interpreting and preserving the constitutional balance of power, ensuring that the government operates within its defined limits while maintaining the capacity to address potential abuses of power by high-ranking officials.

8. United States v. Pheasant

In the recent case of United States v. Pheasant, the judiciary delved into the principles of separation of powers and nondelegation, focusing on the delegation of legislative power to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The controversy emerged when Mr. Pheasant was prosecuted for allegedly violating BLM regulations concerning the improper use of dirt bikes on federal land. Judge Robert Jones of the Nevada District Court dismissed the indictment, citing the unconstitutional nature of such delegation under the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA).

Judge Jones's ruling highlighted the issue of Congress transferring its legislative authority to an executive agency without sufficient guiding principles. The BLM's ability to issue regulations deemed "necessary" by the Secretary of Interior amounted to a broad legislative mandate without adequate constraints, effectively creating a scenario where BLM officials held both legislative and enforcement powers over vast swathes of federal land.

The ruling also brought attention to the nondelegation doctrine, asserting that Congress cannot transfer its lawmaking authority to another branch without clear guidelines. Judge Jones determined that the FLPMA's vague standards failed to set a clear "intelligible principle" to guide the BLM's regulatory activities.

Should higher courts uphold Judge Jones's decision, it could significantly restrict the scope of regulatory authority granted to federal agencies. The reaffirmation of nondelegation principles would reinforce Congress's accountability in creating laws and constrain the extent of rulemaking powers of executive agencies, thereby preserving the constitutional balance designed by the Framers.

United States v. Pheasant serves as a reminder of the relevance and necessity of the separation of powers. It bears testament to the vigilance required to ensure that legislative, executive, and judicial functions remain distinct and that no branch exercises unchecked power. The ruling echoes the fundamental belief that while federal agencies are instrumental in executing laws and managing public lands, their powers must be carefully bounded by legislative oversight.

9. Humphrey's Executor v. United States

The 1935 Supreme Court case Humphrey's Executor v. United States addressed the balance of power between the executive branch and independent regulatory agencies. The case arose when President Franklin D. Roosevelt dismissed William E. Humphrey, a commissioner of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), due to policy differences. However, the FTC Act provided that a commissioner could only be removed "for inefficiency, neglect of duty, or malfeasance in office."

Humphrey's executor challenged the dismissal, asserting that the removal was not justified under the statutory grounds outlined in the FTC Act. The Supreme Court was tasked with determining whether the President could remove an FTC commissioner at will, or if the statutory protections were valid constraints on executive power.

In a unanimous decision authored by Justice George Sutherland, the Supreme Court ruled against President Roosevelt. The Court distinguished between purely executive officers, who serve at the pleasure of the President, and officers of independent regulatory agencies. Justice Sutherland articulated that independent agency commissioners were not subject to unrestrained removal by the President, as the nature and purpose of these agencies necessitated a buffer from executive control to prevent undue political interference and maintain their quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial functions.

This ruling established that the President's authority to remove federal appointees is not absolute regarding independent regulatory commissions. Such protections ensure that these agencies can perform their duties impartially and effectively, free from constant political pressures. The decision reinforced the structural independence of regulatory agencies, enhancing their ability to function as intended under their enabling statutes.

Humphrey's Executor v. United States continues to be a cornerstone in constitutional law, governing the relationship between the executive branch and independent agencies. It serves as a testament to the principle that no branch of government should wield unchecked power, preserving the integrity of the Republic as envisioned by the Founding Fathers.

10. Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board

The 2010 Supreme Court decision in Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) examined the removal protections afforded to members of certain independent agencies. The case focused on the PCAOB, an agency established by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act to oversee public company audits.

The central issue was whether the dual layers of removal protections for PCAOB members infringed on executive power. PCAOB members could only be removed "for cause" by Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) members, who themselves could only be removed "for cause" by the President. This arrangement insulated PCAOB members from direct presidential control.

In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court invalidated the dual layered protections, ruling that they violated the separation of powers doctrine. The Court argued that such a scheme hindered the President's ability to ensure faithful execution of the laws, compromising the President's authority to supervise and remove executive officers.

Chief Justice Roberts' majority opinion emphasized that the Constitution grants the President the power to control and hold accountable executive officers. The Court maintained that substantial executive control was necessary for the President to fulfill his constitutional role.

The ruling necessitated structural revisions to ensure compliance with constitutional principles without dismantling the entire PCAOB framework. The Court held that while independent agencies can function autonomously, their independence must still fall within the bounds of constitutional oversight requirements.

Free Enterprise Fund v. PCAOB reinforced the principle that, even within independent regulatory agencies, the President's executive authority must be preserved to maintain effective governance. This ruling highlighted the essential balance envisioned by the Founders, ensuring executive officers remain accountable to the President and, by extension, to the people.

The decision has had significant implications for the structure and governance of federal agencies. It underscores that independence does not mean entirely detached from executive oversight, providing a check against potential overreach by independent entities. The decision reflects the checks and balances embedded within the Constitution to prevent any branch of government from amassing unchecked power.

Key Takeaways:

• The case examined the constitutionality of dual layered removal protections for PCAOB members.
• The Supreme Court invalidated the dual layered protections, ruling that they violated the separation of powers doctrine.
• The decision emphasized the President's constitutional authority to control and hold accountable executive officers.
• The ruling necessitated structural revisions to ensure compliance with constitutional principles while preserving the PCAOB framework.
• The decision has significant implications for the structure and governance of federal agencies, reinforcing the importance of checks and balances.