Classical Republicanism: Origins and Principles

Classical republicanism traces its origins back to ancient Greece and Rome, where civic virtue and the common good took center stage in political thought. Aristotle painted a picture of man as a political animal, or zoon politikon, with the idea that full human potential is only realized through active participation in the public life of the polis. His call for a life of vita activa shaped the belief that individual fulfillment comes through contributing to the state.

Polybius observed the Roman Republic and emphasized a mixed constitution—combining elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. This setup prevented corruption and balanced power effectively. Polybius admired the Romans' commitment to the common good and the unique capacity of their political system to integrate various government forms.

Machiavelli championed an active citizenry dedicated to the res publica, or public affairs, reintroducing the concept of the citizen-warrior. He argued that a militia of engaged citizens is far better than a standing army, which he believed invited tyranny and compromised liberty.

The essence of classical republicanism lies in the virtues of its citizens. Active participation, prioritizing the common good, and displaying civic virtue are its cornerstone principles. The Romans called this virtus, a term for excellence in public and private life, where collective action and public morality were highly valued.

European thinkers like Harrington, Montesquieu, and others added to these ideas. Harrington emphasized the connection between land ownership and civic virtue, while Montesquieu underscored the importance of checks and balances.

American Founders like John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington drew on these principles while shaping the republic. Adams continuously highlighted the necessity of virtue for maintaining liberty, suggesting that without civic virtue, a republic could not survive.

Classical republicanism ultimately sees the state as a homogenous body where the common good prevails over individual interests, requiring citizens to sacrifice personal interests for the greater good.

Lockean Liberalism vs. Classical Republicanism

While classical republicanism emphasized civic virtue and the common good, Lockean liberalism introduced a framework centered around individual rights and property. This contrast illustrates a pivotal tension within the philosophical roots of American government.

John Locke proposed that individuals possess inalienable rights—life, liberty, and property—which governments are instituted to protect. Unlike classical republicanism's ideal of subordinating personal interests to the state's welfare, Locke viewed government as a compact among individuals designed to safeguard personal rights and freedoms.

This divergence between classical republicanism and Lockean liberalism created a dynamic tension among America's Founding Fathers. The Federalist Papers capture this ideological conflict, with Madison arguing for a large republic to manage diverse interests and ambitions while protecting individual rights.

Jefferson and Hamilton personified this split during the formative years. Jefferson stressed the virtues of agrarian society, fearing commerce and industry would erode moral virtue. Conversely, Hamilton recognized the importance of fostering economic innovation and protecting individual entrepreneurial endeavors.

Ultimately, Lockean liberalism gained ascendancy as the American political order evolved. The protection of individual rights and the encouragement of commerce became central to the American ethos. Documents like the Constitution encapsulate this blend—ensuring rights while prescribing a system of checks and balances to maintain a stable republic.

Classical Republicanism in the American Revolution

The American Revolution stands as a pivotal point marking the emergence of a new nation profoundly influenced by classical republicanism. Revolutionary leaders like Adams, Jefferson, and Washington absorbed these principles, framing their fight for independence as a revolutionary transformation of society based on republican ideals.

Wood argues that the revolutionary leaders envisioned a society where citizens would exhibit high moral standards, engage in self-governance, and commit to the commonweal with a sense of civic duty. State constitutions drafted during and after the war reflected this commitment to virtue and the public good, encouraging civic engagement and restraining potential tyranny.

Revolutionary leaders saw the creation of a virtuous citizenry as essential for the republic's survival. Educational initiatives aimed to create a well-informed population, crucial for sustaining self-governance. Massachusetts included provisions for public education, reflecting the belief that an educated citizenry was fundamental.

The influence of classical republicanism extended to the socio-economic dimensions. Jefferson advocated for an agrarian vision where independent yeoman farmers would form the republic's backbone, fostering responsibility and virtue. Policies like the Land Ordinance of 1785 aimed to create a broad base of property-owning citizens who would serve as the republic's vanguard.

Classical republicanism also impacted legislative agendas, imbuing them with a sense of moral obligation to create laws reflecting the common good, such as establishing laws against aristocratic privilege and promoting egalitarian principles.

The Shift from Classical Republicanism to Lockean Liberalism

The practical difficulties of adhering strictly to classical republican ideals became apparent as the new nation navigated its formative years. The agrarian vision was strained by the needs of a growing commercial economy. Figures like Adams, Hamilton, and Madison recognized that classical republicanism needed to be harmonized with the pragmatic demands of governing a diverse society.

Adams eventually saw the necessity of adapting classical republican ideals, acknowledging that government had to work with human nature as it was, not as idealists hoped. Hamilton argued for the importance of commerce, industry, and protecting property as necessary components of a prosperous nation.

Madison articulated the need for a constitutional framework that could manage inherent factionalism arising from diverse interests. His advocacy for a large republic with checks and balances acknowledged Locke's influence, ensuring no single group could dominate.

The ratification of the Constitution itself was a testament to this emerging consensus, incorporating mechanisms to protect individual rights while ensuring a robust, adaptable framework for governance.

The transition toward Lockean liberalism was solidified by the realization that classical republicanism's emphasis on a homogeneous, virtuous citizenry was increasingly impractical in a diverse society. The Founding Fathers crafted a distinctive American political identity by marrying republican ideals with Lockean liberalism's practical tenets.

References

• Aristotle. Politics. 350 BCE.
• Machiavelli N. Discourses on Livy. 1531.
• Locke J. Two Treatises of Government. 1689.
• Hamilton A, Madison J, Jay J. The Federalist Papers. 1788.
• Wood GS. The Radicalism of the American Revolution. 1993.
• United States Constitution. 1787.