Classical Education of the Founding Fathers

When Alexander Hamilton entered King's College in 1773, he already had a mastery of Greek and Latin grammar. He could read three orations from Cicero and Vergil's Aeneid in the original Latin, and translate the first ten chapters of the Gospel of John from Greek into Latin. This was not uncommon among the Founding Fathers.

Thomas Jefferson's early training in Latin, Greek, and French prepared him well for his studies at the College of William and Mary. James Madison had read classics like Vergil, Horace, Justinian, Caesar, Tacitus, Lucretius, Phaedrus, Herodotus, Thucydides, and Plato before attending the College of New Jersey (now Princeton).

John Adams and John Hancock attended Harvard, where admissions required fluent reading of Cicero and ease in Latin and Greek. Even for those like George Washington who lacked formal education, admiration for classical thinkers was paramount, as reflected in his insistence on classical education for his stepson. Public sermons were also steeped in classical references, with thinkers like Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards emphasizing the importance of classical wisdom.

The Founding Fathers drew direct comparisons and lessons from historical texts to their contemporary struggles. The Constitutional Convention debates showcased their classical fluency, with Madison, Hamilton, and Jay referencing ancient Greek political structures to argue their points. Readers of the Federalist Papers were assumed to have an understanding of these allusions.

The classical education of the Founding Fathers was not merely ornamental. It fueled their values and actions profoundly, molding American ideals fundamentally. The lessons from classical texts were crucial in shaping the new Republic, providing understanding of both the complex and practical elements of governance.

Architectural Inspirations from Antiquity

The architectural choices made in the construction of key American buildings draw heavily from ancient paradigms, reflecting the deep classical education of the Founding Fathers.

• The U.S. Capitol's design, inspired by the Roman Pantheon, embodies classical elegance and endurance. The Capitol's interior features Doric columns from the Temple of Apollo, Ionic columns from the Erechtheion, and uniquely American Corinthian capitals blending native tobacco leaves with classical acanthus.
• Thomas Jefferson's fascination with classical architecture is evident in the Virginia State Capitol, inspired by the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France. This structure mirrors the grandeur and simplicity of a Roman temple, conveying stability and republican virtue.
• The layout of Washington, D.C., also bears the imprint of ancient cities, with the Capitol on Capitol Hill evoking Rome's Capitoline Hill and the National Mall drawing inspiration from the Roman Forum.

The city's collective classical aesthetic is visible in the Treasury Building's Ionic columns, the Patent Office's Parthenon inspiration, and the Lincoln Memorial's Doric colonnade. This conscious borrowing of a language of power, endurance, and democratic ideals emphasizes the Founders' belief in the enduring truths of the Greco-Roman world.

As the nation grew, classical influences in American architecture evolved. The early Republic's embrace of Roman precedents gave way to Greek Revival architecture, seen in the University of Virginia and countless courthouses and statehouses across the country. This shift reflects the evolving American ideals of democracy and enlightenment.

The architectural echoes of Greece and Rome across America's capital are more than stylistic choices; they are a reminder of the values and virtues the Founding Fathers held in the highest regard. Classical architecture continues to speak to the timeless ideals of democracy, liberty, and justice.

Classical Models of Government

The Founding Fathers were captivated by the ideals and political structures of ancient Greece and Rome. Their engagement with classical texts molded the philosophical foundations of the American Republic, with elements of republicanism, checks and balances, and civic virtue permeating their political ideologies.

The concept of republicanism, rooted in Roman tradition, presented a model of divided authority among different branches of government to prevent tyranny. James Madison referenced the virtues of a mixed government in the Federalist Papers, reflecting Roman republicanism in his idea of a balanced system with shared power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

The principle of checks and balances, integral to the United States Constitution, has antecedents in the classical world. The writings of Polybius, describing the Roman Republic's system of consuls, senate, and people's assemblies, influenced the Founders' design of a government that could check itself to safeguard liberty.

The Greek concept of civic virtue, emphasizing active participation in public life and placing the common good above individual desires, resonated with the Founders. They believed the success of the American Republic depended on the moral character and responsibility of its citizens. Thomas Jefferson often emphasized the importance of an educated and virtuous citizenry in maintaining the health of the republic.

The Greek historian Thucydides and the philosopher Aristotle provided frameworks for understanding governance and civic responsibility.

• Thucydides' analysis of the Peloponnesian War offered insights into the strengths and weaknesses of democratic systems.
• Aristotle's classifications of different forms of government informed the Founders' thinking on creating a balanced and stable government.

The Roman statesman Cicero's writings on law and governance, championing the idea of natural law underpinning societal laws and government actions, heavily influenced the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. His thoughts on the necessity of moral and intellectual virtues in leaders were mirrored in the Founders' aspirations and expectations for their new nation.

The Federalist Papers, advocating for the ratification of the United States Constitution, are replete with classical references. These essays were comprehensive treatises steeped in the classical education and experiences of the writers.

The Founding Fathers' appropriation of classical models of government was far from superficial. Their education in the classics provided a rich historical precedent and philosophical reflection that directly influenced the United States' foundational structures. The Republic they envisioned—a nation dedicated to checks and balances, informed civic participation, and the rule of law—bore the indelible mark of ancient wisdom. By selecting and modifying these classical principles, they crafted a Constitution that endures as a framework for governance, embodying the timeless political ideals they so thoroughly studied and revered.^1-3

Classical References in Founding Documents

The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution are replete with classical references that underscore the Founding Fathers' profound reverence for ancient wisdom. The Declaration of Independence, primarily penned by Thomas Jefferson, invokes the concept of "unalienable Rights" endowed by the Creator, echoing the natural law tradition rooted in the works of classical thinkers like Cicero and Aristotle.

The list of grievances against King George III in the Declaration parallels historical accounts of tyrannical rulers from classical antiquity, casting the American struggle in a noble light similar to the Roman Republic's resistance against tyranny. This classical framing provided a compelling narrative grounded in the respected traditions of resistance to unjust rule.

The Constitution itself reflects the lessons learned from ancient governance. The preamble's aspiration to "establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty" resonates with the classical mission of fostering a just and stable society.

When drafting the Constitution, the Founding Fathers drew from Polybius's analysis of the Roman Republic, crafting a system that balanced elements of democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy through the House of Representatives, the Senate, and the Presidency. This balance was intended to prevent the emergence of tyranny.

The Federalist Papers, written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, embody the classical expertise of their authors.

• Federalist No. 63, written by Madison, explicitly cites the Roman Senate as a model for the American upper house, emphasizing stability, wisdom, and continuity as virtues of an enduring republic.
• Hamilton, in Federalist No. 68, employs classical references to describe the virtues of indirect election and the necessity of informed and reasoned choice for the Presidency. This aligns with the classical principle upheld by thinkers like Aristotle, who advocated for a form of governance led by those possessing the highest wisdom and virtue.

The Bill of Rights carries echoes of classical thought, with its emphasis on individual liberties and protection from governmental overreach. The right to a trial by jury and protection against cruel and unusual punishment resonate with the themes of fairness and human dignity that permeate the works of classical historians and philosophers.

The integration of classical references in America's founding documents was a deliberate and strategic choice. By invoking the wisdom of antiquity, the Founding Fathers effectively legitimized their new government, creating a lasting framework that embodies the enduring values derived from their classical and Enlightenment educations.¹

Influence of Classical Heroes

The Founding Fathers admired and actively emulated classical figures such as Cincinnatus, Cicero, and the Greek statesman Solon as paragons of virtue and leadership. These classical stalwarts served as moral and practical guides for their actions in the nascent American Republic.

Cincinnatus resonated deeply with George Washington, who, like the Roman general, voluntarily relinquished his military command after the Revolutionary War, reinforcing the ideal that leadership should be exercised with restraint and in service to the public good.

Cicero's devotion to the Roman Republic and his denunciation of tyranny shaped the philosophical underpinnings of many Founders, including John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Cicero's writings on natural law and the intrinsic rights of individuals provided a foundational philosophy that informed the Declaration of Independence.

The concept of virtus (civic virtue) underpinned the ethos with which the Founders approached the creation of the new government. They believed, as Cicero did, that the success of a republic depended upon the moral character and active participation of its citizens.

Solon, the Athenian lawmaker credited with laying the foundations for democracy in Athens, influenced the Founders with his reforms that promoted economic fairness and legal equity. James Madison's reflections in The Federalist Papers often draw parallels to Solon's balancing acts between competing societal interests.²

These classical heroes provided a living blueprint for governance and personal conduct. Through the emulation of Cincinnatus's humility, Cicero's eloquence, and Solon's wisdom, the Founders combined the ethical and civic virtues of antiquity with the enlightenment principles of their time, creating a legacy that has transcended generations.

The classical education of the Founding Fathers shaped the principles and structures that continue to guide the United States today. By looking to the past, they created a timeless framework for governance that remains a testament to their intellectual rigor and visionary leadership.